The Global Sociology Blog

Adam Hochschild’s King Leopold’s Ghost – A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa seemed an appropriate book to bring with me to Africa. I don’t know why I hadn’t read it yet since issues of colonialism, neo-colonialism and slavery are never far from my thoughts.

Anyway, I am glad I did read the book. It is indeed a great read and a page turner. It is also a book of horrors: the horrors inflicted upon the Congo by the rule of Leopold, King of the Belgians in the late 19th Century, early 20th Century, out of greed. It is not a surprise that Joseph Conrad wrote his Heart of Darkness about the colonial Congo and modeled his Mr Kurtz based on real agents from the Leopold regime there.

The Congo never seems to make headlines even though it is a tormented country and it is a prime example of what Virgil Hawkins describes as stealth conflicts: conflicts with high death tolls and long-term nasty consequences, but largely ignored by the media. Here is a short introduction on the concept:

Similarly, the horrors of the Congo were by and large ignored in their time, until pioneers in the human rights movement made it impossible to ignore, but to this day, they are still largely forgotten. It is to Hochschild’s credit to have dug up the details of the untold story of King Leopold’s empire of horrors.

It is a kind of detective work that Hochschild engages in as he pieces together the truth about the Congo through a variety of sources (unfortunately, only a few sources reveal the voices of the victims of the regime, the Congolese, of course), and in spite of Leopold’s attempt to destroy the records of his rule in the Congo (in those days, embarrassing documents were burned, not shredded).

What this all boils down to is this: King Leopold (a relatively toothless constitutional monarch) got himself a colony over which he ruled without parliamentary oversight. His goal was not just to match the reach and influence of other colonial powers (and be part of the scramble for Africa) but also to enrich himself personally through the plundering of Congolese ivory and rubber. And of course, how does one lower one’s labor costs? Through forced labor, of course (all in the name of teaching the savages the value of work!).

It is this forced labor component, accompanied by the institutionalization and rationalization of racism, that opened the door to massive and violent exploitation that ultimately killed half the population of the Congo, either through direct elimination, starvation, overwork, disease (which spread more easily when a population is overwhelmingly malnourished and worked like beasts of burden), and a declining birth rate.

It is not like the natives did not resist. Resist they did indeed. Leopold’s rule was constantly challenged by rebellions that were incredibly violently put down through mass killings. The main tool of "order" in the Congo, was the brutal Force Publique that would burn villages to the ground if men refused to work to harvest wild rubber (a grueling work), take women and children hostage until chiefs gave in. And then, private companies had their own militarized forces that tortured and mutilated the natives in the name of discipline and productivity.

It is the productive nature of these atrocities that will ultimately be the downfall of Leopold’s rule as a young clerk for the main shipping company between Belgium and the Congo starts to notice what comes off the ship arriving at Antwerp (rubber and other goods) and what gets exported to the Congo (weapons, mostly) and realizes what is going on there.

The second half of the book is mostly dedicated to the heroes of what became a strong precursor of the human rights movement: E. D Morel and Roger Casement as well as George Washington Williams and William Sheppard . All these men worked tirelessly to expose the atrocities of the Congo and force change. In that last respect, they were not really successful but they did force Leopold (who had managed to fool the world into thinking him a great humanitarian) to divest himself from the Congo.

Because the book is not just a depersonalized account of the regime, but also a story of characters, it reads almost like a novel. We encounter famous characters: in addition to Leopold himself (and his miserable family life), Henry Morton Stanley, but also Joseph Conrad and a few others. Many of the actors involved in the regime in the Congo such as a variety of managers and districts heads appointed by Leopold. Through their correspondence or diaries, we see the banal dehumanization of the Congolese, the ease with which they tortured, exploited, humiliated and killed so many of them without much second thought.

At the same time, the book also makes clear that it is not free market capitalism and free trade (along with higher moral status) that sealed the West’s economic dominance but rather the plundering of the Global South that fueled industrialization and mass production (I would add that this plundering was made possible itself by the luck of the draw and "guns, germs and steel"). It seems that "free market", "free trade", etc. were as much ideological concepts (as opposed to reality) then as they are now. The type of unfairness may have changed (direct plunder is not as obvious now), but the rules of the WTO still guarantee that the Global South is still being exploited and disadvantaged in one form or another despite big talks of free trade.

In the last chapter of the book, Hochschild reflects on the face of the Congo. since the end of Leopold’s regime and the independence. This is a lesson on the long-term consequences of colonialism as well as the lingering influence of neo-colonial mechanisms. Without stating a clear cause and effect trajectory, Hochschild still asserts that Leopold certainly looks like a great role model for dictator Mobutu, all with the blessings of former colonial powers, once the CIA got rid of Patrice Lumumba.

Mobutu’s rule indeed looks a lot like a continuation of the plundering of the country, (then renamed Zaire) along with mistreatment of the population. Ultimately, misrule led to the Mobutu’s downfall and the persistent state of regional conflict at the center of which the now-named Democratic Republic of the Congo finds itself. Should we really be surprised that the social dislocation wreaked by Leopold’s rule has continued to plague the Congo to this day (with other factors, to be sure)? And that the Congo is still being plundered for its resources (not ivory or rubber anymore, but coltan and copper)? And that the world is still largely silent about it?

Major chocolate companies still using child labour | April 2009 | New Internationalist via kwout

So, this video by Slavery International is still relevant, especially the segment on cocoa plantations in Ivory Coast and the connection between slavery and the imposition of structural adjustment policies by the IMF:

Also, visit the International Labor Rights Forum for more information all global labor issues… especially if you plan on buying flowers for Mother’s Day.

Brothels cut prices to beat the recession – Europe, World – The Independent via kwout

Unsurprisingly, the articles mentions that high-class brothels are still doing pretty well. It is below on the social ladder that economic conditions are felt more harshly. The article also mentions that there may be an increase in supply: more women turning to prostitution as economic conditions worsen. And, higher supply means lower prices in a more competitive market.

What the article does not mention is that beside the "nice" legal German prostitution, there is a darker side to this trade: it is that of sexual slavery and trafficking which is flourishing in general but as more women get desperate in already poorer countries in Eastern Europe, the chances of trafficking increasing are great. It is already dreadful economic conditions that have pushed a lot of women from Moldova and other former communist countries into sex trafficking. And anyone who has read Kevin Bales’s books on slavery knows that any category of people that becomes destitute becomes a prime target for slavery.

So, I guess the point of the article was more "it’s tough for everyone" kind but it ignores a significant aspect of economic recession that is germane to its topic.

Duh…

IRIN Asia | Asia | Afghanistan | AFGHANISTAN: Child servitude, marriage resemble modern-day slavery | Children Early Warning Gender Issues Governance Human Rights | Feature via kwout

And because no story of slavery is complete without violence, sexual or other…

IRIN Asia | Asia | Afghanistan | AFGHANISTAN: Child servitude, marriage resemble modern-day slavery | Children Early Warning Gender Issues Governance Human Rights | Feature via kwout

Such a situation flourishes because of a failing government whose authority does not extend to its entire territory and where corrupt and violent warlords rule based on "tradition".

As the year draws to a close, here is an issue that will still need fighting in 2009: slavery.

BBC NEWS | Africa | ‘Thousands made slaves’ in Darfur via kwout

I have to say that this is sadly not surprising. As anyone who has read Kevin Bales books on the subject knows, social disintegration and brutal downward mobility for certain categories of people tend to enable an increase in slavery in a region. In this case, Darfur is currently a place of ethnic cleansing and genocide and the only surprising factor is that this issue has not be raised more loudly before. As the Darfur villagers are turned into war victims and displaced peasants, they become prime targets for slavery.

And, of course, what is happening to these abductees perfectly match the definition of slavery: exploitative work for no pay, control through violence and high disposable status.

BBC NEWS | Africa | ‘Thousands made slaves’ in Darfur via kwout

December 2nd is the International Day Against Slavery at the occasion of the 200th anniversary of the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade (website ). As the date nears, the UN reminds us that there are still roughly 27 million slaves around the world:

Encore 27 millions d’esclaves dans le monde, Société – NouvelObs.com via kwout

The Not For Sale Campaign has created a very neat tool: an interactive map of modern slavery around the world where incidents of slavery are reported and classified:

The Futurist has a very interesting overview of the links between globalization and criminal networks (sorry, no link, but you can cough up $3 for a PDF version of the article, $5 for the whole issue… or you can go to your closest library and grab a paper copy) by Stephen Aguilar-Millan, Joan E. Foltz, John Jackson and Amy Oberg in their November-December 2008 issue.

There is no doubt that criminal organizations have entered the information age as much as businesses have done and that they are an integral part and users of the network society.

"Just as it has happened in the business world, the vertical and horizontal hierarchies or organized crime dissolved into a large number of loosely connected networks. Each node within the network would be involved in any number of licit and illicit operations. Networked systems spanned the globe. An event in one place might have a significant impact on the other side of the world. In short, crime became globalized. (…) Just as the business world has benefited from globalization, so has organized crime." (42)

As such, the globalization of criminal networks and activities is a direct product of the processes and mechanisms of global capitalism, especially the transportation revolution and the information revolution. In this sense, global criminality is just business dealing with illegal products and services and they are affected by the same processes such as outsourcing and offshoring. As much as any other activities, global criminality is an integral part of the network society.

And just as the global financial crisis has raised awareness of the need for global governance, so has global criminality. Defining and dealing with criminal behavior is still largely the purview of the nation-state but global processes and flows of people, illegal goods and merchandise as well as the deterritorialization and relocation of criminal activities over the Internet have raised the issue of jurisdiction. Virtual banking services have made money laundering easier than ever along with other shady transactions.

For the authors, this has revolutionized the nature and extent of white-collar crime, in which they include not just the usual financial transactions (embezzlement, insider trading and fraud) but also counterfeiting, intellectual property crimes, credit card fraud, cybercrimes and cyberterrorism.

"The spread of capitalism promotes open markets and aims to maximize opportunity but blurs the line between what is considered creative money management and what is considered criminal behavior. The increasing opportunities for white-collar crimes and their potential pay-off is extremely enticing to individuals who do not fit the typical criminal profile." (44)

Translation: upper-class, richer white guys. And the amounts of money involved are staggering. What the authors emphasize is the lack of clear line between creative and criminal but also the fact that getting into the criminal is not a bug but a feature of the lack of regulation and global governance of financial matters.

"Without guidelines and a definitive identification of what constitutes punishable criminal activity, new business models will be created that stretch the systems and threaten economic stability, such as the subprime lending debacle." (49)

For the authors, an era of stricter global regulation is inevitable as criminal and non-criminal behavior have become more disconnected from individual states and jurisdiction. Global cooperation is inevitable and in its infancy.

Where I disagree with the authors is where they state that there is a lag between the opportunities opened by the double revolution (transportation and information) and a proper regulation regime. I would argue that, again, this is a feature, not a bug. State deliberately denationalized entire segments of their regulatory regimes to accommodate global liberalization under the auspices and the edicts of the Washington Consensus.

The main global institutions (IMF, WB and WTO) actively promoted such lack of regulations in the name of "free trade" and rammed structural adjustment programs down the throats of developing countries, with devastating results. It is not a matter of lag, but a matter of which social class wielded its power to obtain a global economic system to its liking.

The article also includes several case studies illustrative of the globalizing and globalized nature of global criminality:

• Drugs and US-Mexico border

• The modern slave trade

• Cybercrime and counterfeiting

• Gangs

• Heroin

Via the BBC,

BBC NEWS | UK | Catching up with the ‘internet pimps’ via kwout

This is the usual story of debt bondage that is still the main form of slavery today but also of desperate women and of men and women who take capitalism seriously and can sniff a profitable market when they see one:

BBC NEWS | UK | Catching up with the ‘internet pimps’ via kwout

And this is a profitable market indeed as the demand for prostitutes is growing worldwide and sex tourism spots generate enormous income for their countries. Trafficking in human beings is indeed globally profitable as core countries sometimes pursue harsh anti-drug policies.

In addition, the risks are minimal, the sentences handed down when a network is dismantled are ridiculously low. Usually, the victims are deported before they can testify as they are considered illegal immigrants. With enough women ins situation of both economic destitution and more responsibility for the economic survival of their household, there is a ready pool of women who are willing to take the chance for the vague promise of a good job in a Western countries, or are simply sold into the sex trafficking. This is one of the major forms of global barbarism.

Score one for the good guys:

‘Sex slavery’ gang jailed in child prostitution case | World news | guardian.co.uk via kwout

14 years is great. These guys engage in slavery because it is a highly profitable business. Let’s make it costly, financially and personally (with heavy prison terms), increase the costs of the whole thing (since it is very hard to reduce the supply of desperate women) and make the whole endeavor less profitable.

And from reading the article, it is very clear that the judge understood plainly what was going on in these cases.

‘Sex slavery’ gang jailed in child prostitution case | World news | guardian.co.uk via kwout

Unfortunately, "civilized societies" continue to accommodate themselves very well with modern slavery and there is much work to be done. So, head on over to the Free The Slaves website to get some information and find ways to get involved.

It does not happen that often, so it is worth noticing when the good guys win!

BBC NEWS | Africa | Niger ex-slave wins landmark case via kwout

Let’s hope this sets a precedent that former slaves can obtain compensation in court and rebuild their lives. Unfortunately, Ms Mani’s story is both horrific and not unusual for slaves in that part of Africa.

BBC NEWS | Africa | Niger ex-slave wins landmark case via kwout

What is again important here is that the panel of judges in this case was composed of magistrates from different countries. A good example of regional governance:

Landmark court case in Niger gives hope to thousands held in slavery | World news | The Observer via kwout

This is a case where regional jurisprudence should be used to fight against local customary rule which, quite often, contributes to the maintenance of harmful practices, often directed against women as part of traditional patriarchal structures.

Landmark court case in Niger gives hope to thousands held in slavery | World news | The Observer via kwout

Let’s hope indeed. In the meantime, score one for the good guys.

Things that suck

Another session, another !@#$ baby.

The universe turning against you:

• Being delayed at Logan Airport long enough to see O-Force One (Change you can believe in!!) for the big birthday bash, apparently.
• Sitting on the plane next to a woman (with young child!) wearing a pink "Obama Mama" shirt (that’ll teach me to upgrade to Economy +)
• Driving home in the biggest !@#$ thunderstorm with lighting that makes you think you’re in a rave party.

The Thing that Really Sucked

Kevin Bales did not show up for the session on human trafficking and slavery. Damn, I really wanted to see him, he’s my hero!

Putting a session on such an important topic as human trafficking (which definitely fits with the general topic of labor) on the last day, where most people have already gone home.

Things that don’t suck

The session on human trafficking and slavery, which had two very interesting contributions.

Read the rest of this entry »

Here’s to people getting their comeuppance. Enslaving others is one of the most heinous crimes that I can think of. Via the BBC:

"A wealthy New York woman has been sentenced to 11 years in jail for keeping two Indonesian women as slaves. Varsha Mahender Sabhnani, 46, and her husband Mahender Murlidhar Sabhnani, 51, kept them as slaves and abused them physically and psychologically. The couple had been found guilty on 12 charges in December, including involuntary servitude, harbouring aliens and forced labour.

Mr Sabhnani is to be sentenced later on Friday and may get a shorter term.

In addition to prison, his Indian-born wife was fined $25,000 (£12,600).

"I just want to say that I love my children very much," she told the federal court in Central Islip, on New York state’s Long Island, as two of her grown children looked on.

"I was brought to this earth to help people who are in need."

Her husband wept as his wife’s sentence was announced."

Aww, that is just so sad… until one discovers what they actually did to the women they brought in as housekeepers:

"The wealthy couple, who run a perfume business and have four children, had brought the women to their large house to work as housekeepers, and forced them to work up to 18 hours a day. The couple were arrested after one of the women was found wandering the streets dressed in only trousers and a towel. (…)

[Prosecutors] described how the two Indonesian women had been punished for misbehaviour such as sleeping late and stealing food from the dustbin to supplement their meagre meals.

The women said they had been beaten with brooms and umbrellas, slashed with knives, made to take freezing showers and climb stairs repeatedly.

One said she had been forced to eat several hot chillies and then her own vomit.

US District Judge Arthur Spatt called the testimony "eye-opening, to say the least – that things like that go on in our country".

He postponed a decision on the amount of back pay owed to the two women. Prosecutors have suggested they were due more than $1.1m.

Lawyers for the accused had argued that the housekeepers practised witchcraft and may have abused themselves."

Oh sure. Please, give me a break. Actually, this description of slavery in the housekeeping business is fairly typical. I guess slaveholders lack imagination when it comes to mistreating their slaves. Anyone familiar with Kevin Bales’s books and work would recognize all the "symptoms" of this situation. It is clearly modern slavery.

The worst part of it is that these people are wealthy. They could perfectly afford to pay market wages for housekeepers and nannies and whatever other services they need. Of course, that would mean having to treat their employees according to the labor codes of this country… which I guess is an inconvenience, better to have slaves.

As always, shameless plug to Free The Slaves. And as Kevin Bales himself stated in the comments of a previous post:

"One of the interesting things about people in slavery is how much they really want a chance to work for themselves and, though it may sound strange to people in the rich North, to become consumers. It is just that for them consumption means three meals a day instead of one, school for their kids, and a chance to live without constant fear. Slavery is a horrible violation of human rights, but once people are out of slavery they really need a chance to build up that minimum of income for a decent life, a chance to learn, and a chance to become citizens. Remarkably the average cost of helping someone in slavery to achieve that level of human dignity is only about $400 – or about $11 billion to end slavery forever – a tiny tiny fraction of the wealth you describe in your post.

For more about how we will end slavery and how much it will cost, see my book Ending Slavery: How We Free Today’s Slaves. "

Let me add that all proceeds go to helping slaves.

Also check out the videos at Free The Slaves’s Youtube Channel.

This is truly terrifying. I did not know this was still going on in the world and I do know a lot about the appalling treatment of women and children around the world:

"Child abduction, which is already a serious problem in Cote d’Ivoire, may worsen in the run up to presidential elections later this year as political hopefuls using traditional myths of human sacrifice to improve their electoral chances will fuel an already significant market for stolen children, according to the Ivorian police.

“[Child abduction] is something that needs urgent attention especially in the run-up to the election because a lot of things are going to happen like human sacrifices and other rituals where the organs of children will be particularly in demand,” said Sergeant Antoine Goua Bi, a spokesperson for the child protection unit of the Ivorian police, who says child sacrifice always increases around election times."

Every day, three new cases of children kidnapping are registered with child protection services. Only 1 in 20 will be recovered. The main culprits are soothsayers and  the organ traffickers, who slice out hearts, kidneys, lungs and other organs for medical research. Children are also kidnapped into the sex trade, slavery on the cocoa plantations (unless you are careful to buy only fair trade chocolate, 80% of the chocolate you eat is tainted by slavery).

Photo source: IRIN with permission.

Slavery is illegal everywhere in the world but different states have implemented the current statutes with variable diligence. So, this time, one woman, an ex-slave, has decided to fight back (via the BBC):

“A former slave is suing Niger’s government, accusing it of failing to implement laws against slavery introduced in 2003. Hadijatou Mani took the case to the Community Court of Justice of Ecowas, the Economic Community of West African States, based in Nigeria. This is the first such case brought by a former slave in Niger. The government says it has done all it can to eradicate the practice and says the problem has been exaggerated.”

Well, of course it’s exaggerated. Women’s problems are always exaggerated anyway. At least, this time, we’re spared the “tradition” justification, right?

“Ms Mani says the government continues to legitimise the practice of slavery through customary law, which discriminates against women in direct conflict with the constitution and criminal code.”

I guess not. And to anyone familiar with modern slavery, Ms Mani’s story is appallingly familiar:

“She was sold into slavery for around $500 when she was 12 years old. She had to carry out domestic and agricultural work but also lived as a sex slave or “Sadaka” to her master who already had four wives and several other “Sadakas”. When she was released and decided to marry a man she had freely chosen, her master insisted she was in fact his wife. A court later found her guilty of bigamy and sentenced her to six months imprisonment.”

Because, of course, there is no problem with her being enslaved by a polygamous man but should she marry freely, the rights of her master take precedence. However, if the government thinks this problem is not really a problem, it’s just women exaggerating, why did it even pass the anti-slavery statute in 2003, in the first place? My interpretation is that it did for the same reason that China wants successful Olympics: legitimacy and political capital. Any government would not want to be the only one not abiding by global norms when it comes to slavery. So, just pass the statute but do not enforce it. That’s the ticket.

IRIN has done a tremendous job reporting on the global nature of child trafficking… in general media indifference. First stop, Mozambique:

“A truck packed with 40 children was intercepted in the central Mozambican province of Manica this week, sparking concern over increased child trafficking and the urgent need for effective legislation to address the problem.”

These children were not kidnapped. Their parents had given them voluntarily to the truck driver to drive them to schools in the cities. Mozambique has no law against human trafficking (even though the practice is illegal according to international law), so no trafficker has ever been prosecuted there. The only way to get traffickers prosecuted is to get them charged with kidnapping, corruption of minors or hijacking, but those carry only light sentences. The parliament there is considering a law specifically to protect against trafficking, and it is about time:

“Although there are no recent figures on human trafficking in Mozambique the practice is believed to be growing. A 2003 study on trafficking in the region by the International Organisation on Migration (IOM) estimated that 1,000 Mozambican woman and children were being trafficked to South Africa every year, mainly for sexual exploitation. (…) Amnesty International stated in a 2005 report that trafficking in the former Portuguese colony was also thought to be linked to the extraction of human organs for ritual and witchcraft purposes, with allegations that the practice was taking place in the northern provinces of Nampula and Niassa.”

Next stop: Nepal.
Read the rest of this entry »